Seratofian declension

Seratofian  is the systematic inflection of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in the Seratofian language to satisfy a variety of grammatical categories. As a Cataisuran language, it shares some features to that of other declension systems found in other Cataisuran languages. As a highly-inflecting language, the declension system found in Seratofian is rather complex, with archaic features of proto-Cataisuran such as the dual number in nouns and adjectives still being retained in modern Seratofian. Generally, the system employed in Seratofian is based on the inherent vowel stem of the root, and tends to develop and be classified further from that same root.

Declension system
The declension system in the Seratofian language falls into three broad categories: nominal declension, adjectival declension, as well as pronominal declension. By far, the largest declension system in the Seratofian language is the nominal declension, which contains 14 separate paradigms. Adjectives fall into one of four declension paradigms based on the endings in the masculine, feminine, and neuter singular. The four declension paradigms have some cognate forms in the nominal declensions, but due to the nature of the adjectival declension being based on the sole ending in the masculine, feminine, and neuter, the endings of adjectives and nouns in various cases and numbers may not always be the same.

The Seratofian pronominal declension is by far the simplest declension system of the three, arguably because it only deals with pronouns. The small number of pronouns compared to the number of total nouns and adjectives in any given language is the key factor in the arguably simple declension system of the pronoun system in the Seratofian language. The pronominal declension system in Seratofian is tightly linked to the nominal declension, with almost all forms of the pronominal declension seem they fall into a specific declension category. Some scholars remark that the pronominal declension system is in fact a subset of the nominal declension system, with different pronouns falling into different declension paradigms, and is therefore very regular.

Names in the Seratofian language do not have their own specified declension system, rather they fall into one of the 14 declension paradigms, depending on inherent vowel stem of the name and gender of the said name. It is entirely possible that a unisex name in the nominative be declined differently due to the bearer of the name being a different gender. All names are animate nouns in Seratofian.

Nouns
A majority of Seratofian nouns have an inherent vowel stem that determine the general declension paradigm, and a determining gender that specifies the specific paradigm in which a noun is declined. The declension system in Seratofian is further divided into two separate declensions for each paradigm: hard declension and soft declension. The hard declension is used to decline words of a particular declension paradigm whose consonant stem is classified as "hard consonant", and the soft declension is used to decline words whose consonant stem is classified as a "soft consonant". In this sense, hard does not mean plain consonants and soft consonant does not mean palatalized. The defining trait of soft consonants is that they trigger the palatal declension system, also known as the soft declension. Below is a list of letters according to their respective classes. A neuter class exists which are by default soft consonants and can not be palatalized, or simply can not be palatalized. Noun stems that are inherently palatalized fall into the hard declension.

Nouns in Seratofian are declined in eight cases, each case answering to a specific question, which are in traditional order:

Adjectives
Adjectives in Seratofian fall into one of four declension paradigms depending on their endings in the nominative case for masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns. Animate and inanimate nouns are not differentiated in the singular and dual, and have similar forms with each other in the corresponding gender. The endings of such paradigms of adjectival declensions in Seratofian could be found in the extensive nominal declension. However, the corresponding declension paradigms of the nominal and the adjectival do not always line up. For example, an adjectival declension paradigm may have the nominative plural first declension ending for the masculine and feminine plural, but the nominative plural third declension ending for the neuter gender. There isn't a direct one to one correspondence between the two.

Possessive pronouns are declined under adjectival declension, and they are modified for the same cases, grammatical genders, and number as adjectives. Possessive pronouns each fall under one of the four adjectival declensions, and different possessives may have different endings.

Nouns
Seratofian nouns satisfy one of eight cases (Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive, Instrumental, Locative, Partitive, Vocative), three grammatical numbers (singular, dual, plural), and are categorized into three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter). The masculine and feminine genders are further subdivided into animate and inanimate forms each, but are not traditionally counted in the number of genders in the language. The differences in animate and inanimate forms of nouns do not differ greatly and are treated as "subsets" of the masculine and feminine genders.

Nouns are traditionally classified into inherent vowel stem endings and gender, which when reduced to its base form form the accusative case of word (e.g Mötjë > Mötje). By this definition, linguists classify up to 14 separate declension paradigms in Seratofian. More recent loan words into the Seratofian language from languages such as Anglish, Modrovian, and Gardarikan, can not be declined, and fall into the undeclinable categories of nouns. Nouns such as taksi "taxi", studjo "studio", and emodži "emoji" are some of the examples. These nouns may still be mistakenly declined according to their respective declensions as if they were native words.

First declension
The first declension in Seratofian is used to decline words with inherent vowel stem -e from masculine and feminine genders, both inanimate and animate. The first declension has two different sub paradigms, one for regular first declension nouns and the second for neuter nouns that decline like the first declension. There exists different systems of declensions between the two, with three different subsets for the first sub paradigm: hard declension, soft declension, and inanimate declension, and two for the second sub paradigm: palatalized and consonant omission. Most nouns regarding people such as father, mother, brother, child, etc. fall into this declension. The inanimate declension is solely reserved for inanimate gendered objects from both masculine and feminine genders, and exhibits palatalization in all the plurals regardless of consonant class, as well as the genitive singular and dual. Listed below is the declension for mötjë "father", bhűmna "land", súlka "silk", regular first declension nouns. Note that the  digraph is pronounced as [b].

The genitive forms of the inanimate declension quite differ from the rest of the declension, with the genitive singular taking the -ja ending and the genitive dual taking the -ju ending. The vocative forms of nouns dedicated to family can be shorted to omit the person suffix -tjë. Several Modrovian words which entered this declension through assimilation such and end with -us or -os as libjrus "book", kommunizmos "communism", retain their -us and -os ending. The accusative singular form of libjrus is not libjre, but rather libjruse.

The genitive form of the first declension for animate objects is done by simply attaching -s at the end of the nominative word, similar to the clitic 's in. The accusative singular and dual have merged into the -e ending, and the nominative dual form shares the same form. The dual form is undistinguished in the nominative and accusative as well as the vocative, and relies on context to determine which type of inflection is meant. The palatal consonants tj mutate into č and dj mutates into dž when followed by an -i. It is important to note that these changes sometimes mimic other words, and context is once again required to determine the true meaning of the declension. Often times, the meanings of words that share a pronunciation because of this problem mean vastly different things, and are often very easily distinguishable.

Some neuter nouns that have the inherent vowel stem -e are also declined using the first declension. Some neuter words that are declined with the first declension include amjá "house", hímna "hymn", and xrabla "bread". These declensions are characterized by the lack and removal of palatalized consonants in the declension and the removal of some consonant phonemes. This sub paradigm is slightly irregular. Below is the declension chart for amjá "house" and xrabla "bread".

The genitive singular form of the declension does not omit any consonant, and adheres to the -s rule found in the regular first declension. The vocative case for the neuter gender has retained the -e ending, a remnant of proto-Cataisuran.

Second declension
The second Seratofian declension is used to decline words with inherent vowel stem -a from the masculine, neuter, and the masculine inanimate genders. The second declension contains no sub paradigms, and consists of three subsets: hard declension, soft declension, and inanimate declension. The -a vowel stem is usually feminine in gender, however, some nouns that end in such ending are not feminine, and are declined using the second declension. The second declension contains several irregularities between the genders, and is one of the more irregular declension paradigms in the Seratofian language. The inanimate declension is characterized by the lack of palatalization, unlike first declension nouns, but have different dative and instrumental forms, closely resembling those of the third declension. Below is the declension chart for Gjatha "hunter", Ljéma "arm", néba "cloud.

Note the different forms in the dative and instrumental for the inanimate declensions. An interesting fact about the second declension is that the dual form acts like the singular in the nominative and a plural in the accusative. The nominative and accusative dual did not survive in the second declension, but did in the third declension. The second declension is sometimes considered as a sub paradigm of the third declension, although most linguists believe that the second declension is too fully fledged to be part of a larger declension. Similar patterns in declensions could be observed in the third declension, albeit more regularly.

Several feminine -a words in fact fall into this declension category and not the intuitive third declension. Most of the feminine words that fall into this declension were either loan words from other languages or have underwent several shifts in meaning and ultimately gender, causing such words to be declined differently from the rest of the nouns similar in vowel stem ending.

Moreover, the second declension is disappearing in western dialects, with the second and third declension now merging into a single -a stem declension paradigm. This phenomenon is not observed in eastern dialects, especially those near the capital region.

Third declension
The Seratofian third declension is one of the biggest declension paradigms in the Seratofian language. This declension declines words with an inherent vowel stem -a in the feminine gender, both animate and inanimate. This declension contains two sub paradigms, the feminine animate and the feminine inanimate. These two sub paradigms each have two subsets, corresponding to the hard and soft variants of each declension paradigm. The second declension hard and soft subsets follow closely the hard and soft feminine animate declensions, and the inanimate declension follows closely the feminine inanimate hard declension. Below is the declension chart for darlja "office" and mara "wave". The third declension animate declension serves the base for most of the second adjectival declension for feminine nouns. The different forms in the instrumental case from the second declension is enough evidence for most linguists that the second declension is more than just a sub paradigm of the third declension (then second declension). Most argue that the second declension was innovative, rather than the third declension, signalling shifts in declensions.

The inanimate declension of the third declension paradigm serves as the base for most of the third adjectival declension for feminine inanimate nouns in the plural. Below is the declension chart for auja "gold", and astra "star".

The partitive singular form differs from that of the second inanimate declension. This stems from an old pre-Seratofian suffix that was later incorporated in the very early history of the language, irregularly at first, then became standardized in the centuries suit. The genitive ending shows resemblance to the fifth and sixth declensions, although it does not palatalize the consonant in the singular soft declension. The vocative form -e has been applied and standardized in the entirety of the third declension, stemming from proto-Cataisuran.

As most nouns that end with -a or have an inherent vowel stem of such are feminine in gender, the third declension is sometimes wrongfully attributed to be the "feminine declension", although feminine nouns can end in a variety of endings or have a different inherent vowel stem, including those of the first and fourth declensions with declines words with the -e stem, the fifth and sixth declensions with the -i stem, and many others.

Shifts in declensions have led to the third declension, both animate and inanimate, to lose words and be declined in other declensions, most often the second declension and the seventh declension. The loss is most often attributed to lack of knowledge in Seratofian grammar in individuals already speaking it, however, some nouns have also been used so rampantly in the other declension by natives that rendered their forms in the third declension obsolete, dated, or archaic, and proceeded to standardize the correct paradigm to their respective new declensions, even though these said nouns who have shifted to other declensions may still theoretically be declined in the third declension and speakers will still understand what is being said.

Fourth declension
The fourth declension mainly deals with neuter nouns with an inherent vowel stem –e, as well as several nouns that have an inherent vowel stem –i from the masculine and feminine genders. Thus, the fourth declension contains four subsets, the hard and soft declension dedicated towards the neuter nouns, as well as the masculine and feminine declensions, which are derived from the –i stems mentioned earlier. The masculine and feminine nouns that have entered this declension are mostly inanimate nouns, and collectively are known as the “inanimate declension” of the fourth declension, however, they exhibit differences in declension, especially in the singular forms. Thus, the fourth declension is rather irregular. The –i stems that entered this declension have become more and more influenced by the sixth declension due to shifts in declension. This phenomenon happens across all declension paradigms. Below is the declension chart for uvóda “water”, mašína “machine”, gváš “hay”, and gjožu “stone". The fourth declension is identical to the first declension in a variety of cases an numbers. This is the result of neuter nouns originally being declined in the first that got dragged away by other declensions, both from other paradigms in Seratofian in the middle period or even earlier when contact with native speakers of old Asuran languages was still rampant. The masculine and feminine –i stems listed above are apparent with their –e accusative ending, and shifted the declension of these words into the fourth. The inanimate nouns still show some traces of the –i stem declensions they originally came from, evident by the different forms of the endings in the masculine and feminine originally –i stem words from the normal neuter –e stem endings.

The fourth declension is not subdivided into two sub paradigms (neuter and animate sub declensions), rather grouped together into four subsets due to the animate forms lacking a separate soft declension. This is the base of most paradigms to be called “subsets” of a declension paradigm, hence why the third declension is split into two even though the third and fourth declensions have equal amounts of subsets.

Fifth declension
Nouns that have an -i inherent vowel stem and are masculine, both animate and inanimate, generally take this declension. This declension has two sub paradigms: the normal-length and the lengthened paradigms. Animate and inanimate nouns are not declined separately, although minor differences may still exist between the two. Vowel length differentiates the declension paradigms. Nouns that fall into the fifth declension are declined in either one of two declensions. The apparent situation of the fifth declension is as such due to a merging of paradigms by the late 17th century. The lengthened -i paradigm has been merged into the fifth (normal-length), and takes on their endings. Although so, the lengthened i sound (í) is still apparent in nouns that are declined as such, and must be memorized to determine which nouns take the normal length or the lengthened paradigm. The fifth paradigm is also regarded as the main -i declension by most linguists, with the sixth declension being more influenced by the fifth, rather than vice versa.

An example would be the words aves "sheep" and kjästa "chest". In the accusative singular, these words would respectively become avi and 'kjästjí. In the accusative plural, these words would respectively become aves and kjästjíjes. The long i is preserved in virtually every single ending except the nominative, where many words have become shortened from the original nominative, with kjästíja as an example. In the masculine normal length -i endings, the vocative singular and dual forms are similar to those of the accusative and the plural to the nominative. In the long -i endings, the vocative forms are all similar to the nominative, regardless of gender. The dative and instrumental cases for the -i stem does not trigger palatalization in the soft paradigm in both sub paradigms. The long -i is not inserted in the dative and instrumental cases.

Below is the declension chart for aves "sheep" and gješro "river" as examples for the normal length -i ending. The locative singular forms have two variants. The more traditional -í ending and the more modern -ax. There is debate on which to use, as both forms grammatically correct. Generally, the -í form is slowly being left, restricted to more formal situations, and -ax is used elsewhere. This influence comes from the sixth declension. The instrumental -öm and -őms endings are a very recent addition into Seratofian, with the older and more traditional -uom and -uoms fulfilling the role before the addition. -uom and -uoms have mutated into the newer modern forms. The use of -uom and -uoms have a sense of being dated, and thus are firmly only found in books and manuscripts dating from before the 20th century.

The long -i sub paradigm follows closely the normal length -i paradigm, and their endings are similar. One notable difference between the two system is the absence of palatalization in the genitive case for the soft declension. Below is the declension chart for pážar "market" and kjästa "chest". The long -i stem is always accompanied by a -j-. One could say that the main difference of the normal length and the lengthened paradigms lies within the inclusion of -íj- between the root word and the endings, but there are still more differences. the genitive singular soft declension of the lengthened paradigm does not trigger palatalization. Secondly, the stress of the word almost always lies on the long i. These differences coupled with the hard and soft declensions appearing in the long -i paradigm gave birth to the different sub paradigm of the long -i.

Some names, especially masculine names with a vowel stem -i, are declined with the long -i stem, more often than that of the normal length. Names like Andri "Andre", Ari "Ari", and Stefján "Stephen, Steven" become Andrí, Arí, and Stefjánjí in the accusative forms. Note that proper nouns do not have plural forms, although such forms could be created theoretically using the already existing paradigms.

Sixth declension
Sharing some traits with the fifth declension, the sixth declension declines nouns that have an inherent vowel stem -i, and are mainly from the feminine gender, both animate and inanimate, and the neuter genders. This paradigm contains no sub paradigms and three subsets: the hard declension, soft declension, and inanimate declension. The inanimate declension differs only in the genitive, dative, and instrumental forms. There are some discrepancies between the soft declension and other paradigms in general. For one, the singular forms are not palatalized. Furthermore, some of the endings of the inanimate declension mimic those of the inanimate subset of the first declension, giving the sixth declension a slightly irregular tone.

The sixth declension within the general -i stem declensions is regarded to be the "sister" declension, with the main paradigm being the fifth, as approximately 60% of the nouns with an inherent vowel stem -i are masculine. Additionally, the long -i stem has merged with the fifth regardless of gender, bumping up the number nouns that are declined using the other paradigm. In turn, the sixth declension has shown some form of innovation, one that has affected the fifth declension locative singular ending. It is believed that the sixth declension gained this new inflection from dialectal variations that have became more and more widely used, and affected the other -i stem paradigm. The traditional locative singular form has been obsolete in the sixth declension ever since the language reforms of 1971, although the traditional form is sometimes still used in the fifth, albeit in a more archaic and poetic style.

Nouns of the sixth declension also typically end in -a or -á in the nominative singular. Below is the declension chart for the nouns erga "mountain", rjoma "thunder", and pjetá "door".

The genitive, dative, and instrumental case of the inanimate declension mimics the first declension, and subsequently, there is a mix of soft and hard declension within these three cases. All the genitive adheres to this rule, and in the dative and instrumental case only in the plural form. Palatalization rules apply to these specific cases. The vocative case is identical to the nominative case in the singular and the accusative case in the dual and plural.

Seventh declension
The seventh declension in Seratofian declines words from the masculine gender, both animate and inanimate. The seventh declension exhibits the -u inherent vowel stem, and together with the eighth and ninth declensions collectively form the -u paradigm. There exists a difference between the animate and inanimate declension, giving the seventh declension two sub paradigms. Additionally, some words that are originally declined with the third declension are now declined using the seventh declension. This discrepancy in declension is considered to be incorrect, and will not be included in the seventh declension, although very widespread and rampantly used.

The seventh declension is considered regular when examined per sub paradigm, as there are only minor differences between the hard and soft declensions of both sub paradigms, and between the two sub paradigms. The -u paradigm collectively is one of the oldest paradigms in the Seratofian language, and is consequently traceable in par with other declension paradigms from other ancient languages. Below is the declension chart for kampíja "field" and bješta "lamp", both masculine animate nouns. Special for the vocative form, the soft singular is not palatalized. The instrumental case has evolved from -um, -úm, and -ejam for the singular, dual, and plural numbers respectively. The locative endings have a common long o as the start of the ending. This used to be a short u, which has then transformed into a long o. The long o has then influenced the endings of other paradigms, especially the -o declension paradigms in the locative.

The inanimate sub paradigm is similar to the animate declension in most aspects, with only the dative and instrumental cases slightly different. Modrovian nouns that end in -ia and have entered Seratofian are declined using this paradigm, mainly the names of countries or regions. The -ia Modroviaan nouns are declined this way regardless of paradigm. Below is the declension chart for datoža "computer" and gjöjamu "barn". As previously mentioned before, Modrovian nouns that end with -ia are declined using this declension, and only exist in the singular form. Below is the declension chart for Artemija "Artemia" and Modrovija "Modrovia". Note that country names do not adhere to the soft/hard declension rules.

Eighth declension
The Seratofian eighth declension declines word of an inherent vowel stem of -u from the feminine gender, both animate and inanimate, and the neuter gender. There are two sub paradigms of this declension: the regular declension and the small -o stem paradigm. There are three subsets of the regular paradigm: hard, soft, and inanimate. Feminine animate and neuter nouns are declined with either the hard or soft declension, and feminine inanimate nouns are declined with the inanimate subset, regardless of final consonant stem. The hard and soft declensions have some counterparts in the seventh, although not as apparent as in other declensions. The inanimate declension has some similarities between the seventh declension inanimate declensions, especially the hard forms. This is apparent in the locative and partitive cases. Although so, several alternate forms exist that mimic those of the hard and soft endings of the eighth declension. The Seratofian language board recommends the use of endings that mimic the seventh declension, however, does not state that those that do not mimic are incorrect, giving some form of free variation towards the speaker.

The eighth declension is thought to have evolved together with the seven, and in its early forms share a lot of similarities. This is apparent in some dialectal variation, where the eighth declension is completely merged with the seven. There are two possibilities of this occurrence according to some linguists. The more popular theory is that the split between the eighth and the seventh declensions never happened in these dialects, which by then were separate languages from standard Seratofian. The influence of the capital dialect and then standard Seratofian brought these separate languages closer together to the point of being just called dialects.

Below is the declension chart for kjed "heart", iesën "year", and štexaf "table", The accusative inanimate declension follows the hard/soft rule in declension. The vocative form of the singular preserve the -e vocative suffix. The accusative singular of the soft declension is also not palatalized.

Some nouns originally with an inherent vowel stem of -o have begun to be declined using the eighth declension. Due to shifts in declensions, these words have adopted most endings of the eighth declension, however still retain some features of their original endings. Subsequently, this sub paradigm is arguably small. Due to this sub paradigm to be a fusion of two regular paradigms, the endings are somewhat irregular within the eighth declension. Although the influences of the -o stem declensions are stronger, the accusative form still mimics the eighth paradigm, and is classified as such. Below is the declension chart for dja̋ga "earth, world" and tumos "smoke". The accusative forms mimic those of the regular declension, and the instrumental declensions were derived also from the regular declension. As a result, the accusative singular form is not palatalized. The origin of the partitive forms are unclear, as they do not appear in the -o declensions. A possible theory is that they are alternate forms in dialectal variation that became widespread upon the start of the shift into the eighth declension.

Ninth declension
The ninth declension declines nouns that have a long u stem, regardless of gender. The ninth declension is similar in retrospect to the long i sub paradigm of the fifth declension, however, the endings of the ninth declension are deemed too divergent from the regular -u stem declensions, and are classified as their own paradigm. The long u stem shares some similarities with both the seventh and eighth. This paradigm does not have any sub paradigms, and has three subsets: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The ninth declension is the only paradigm to not differentiate between hard and soft consonants, rather gender. The long u paradigm was thought to have contained more nouns, but some have shifted into one of the other -u stem paradigms. Minor differences between genders exists, especially in the dative cases.

Below is the declension chart for vír "hero", lëpe "cow", and óvjo "egg". Note the several different forms of the neuter declension. The neuter declension is in fact more influenced by the tenth and eleventh declensions more than the masculine and the feminine ones as the tenth and eleventh declensions also play a role in affecting the endings. Consequently, various forms that follow closely the tenth and eleventh declensions from the masculine and feminine declensions are often older words that have become more influenced by the -o stems rather than the -u stems.

Tenth declension
The tenth declension is one of the -o stem declensions, and declines words that are masculine in gender, both animate and inanimate. This paradigm has two sub paradigms: the animate and the inanimate. The tenth declension evolved from the proto-Cataisuran -o endings, and is, at par with the -u stems, one of the oldest declensions of the Seratofian language.